[242] In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of president João Goulart with US backing. The USSR discouraged further escalation of the war, however, providing just enough military assistance to tie up American forces. ", National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33, Ello (ed. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response. Further nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America. Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as flexible response. [301] Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA—the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham—resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. [79] In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the Kingdom of Greece in its civil war against Communist-led insurgents. [331] The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent. Confronted with the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its containment doctrine. This proposal was accepted by Stalin. [B], While most historians trace the origins of the Cold War to the period immediately following World War II, others argue that it began with the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 when the Bolsheviks took power. Kennedy hoped that the flexible response strategy would allow the US to counter Soviet influence without resorting to nuclear war. [1] The term "cold" is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, president Carter began massively building up the United States military. As nearly all the colonial states achieved independence in the period 1945–1960, they became Third World battlefields in the Cold War. [204], In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. [319] However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West. Coordinator for the Arctic Region, Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources, Office of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization, Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance, Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation, Under Secretary for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights, Bureau of Conflict and Stabilization Operations, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, Office of International Religious Freedom, Office of the Special Envoy To Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism, Office of the U.S. Special Coordinator for Tibetan Issues, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs, Office of the Science and Technology Adviser, Bureau of the Comptroller and Global Financial Services, Bureau of Information Resource Management, Office of Management Strategy and Solutions, Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, U.S. We will bury you", shocking everyone present. In 1955, at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. The Office of the Spokesperson releases statements, media notes, notices to the press and fact sheets on a daily basis. Tet showed that the end of US involvement was not in sight, increasing domestic skepticism of the war and giving rise to what was referred to as the Vietnam Syndrome, a public aversion to American overseas military involvements. [216] The request was rebuffed, but the United States now limited its security guarantees to West Berlin. De Gaulle protested at the strong role of the United States in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. [239] The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European communist parties. By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. [91] One month later, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, creating a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC). According to historian Charles R.H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. "[11][12], According to historian Spencer Tucker, the Allies felt, "The treaty was the ultimate betrayal of the Allied cause and sowed the seeds for the Cold War. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. )[83][84], Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between Republicans and Democrats focused on containment and deterrence that weakened during and after the Vietnam War, but ultimately persisted thereafter. Britain and other Western powers—except the United States—did business and sometimes recognized the new Soviet Union. The incident increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961. [128], American policymakers, including Kennan and John Foster Dulles, acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas. He called on cities to prepare fallout shelters for nuclear war. [9] Some Bolsheviks saw Russia as only the first step, planning to incite revolutions against capitalism in every western country, but the need for peace with Germany led Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin away from this position. André Bossuroy, Europe for Citizens Programme of the European Union, This page was last edited on 18 May 2021, at 00:12. [243] In late April 1965, the US sent some 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic for a one-year occupation in an invasion codenamed Operation Power Pack, citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban-style revolution in Latin America. The speech, written by a journalist Herbert Bayard Swope,[7] proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. Central and Eastern European territories that the Soviet army liberated from Germany were added to the Eastern Bloc, pursuant to the Percentages Agreement between Churchill and Stalin. [261] He then turned to the China and Safari Club—a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including those of Iran, Egypt, Saudi Arabia—for support and weapons. [110] As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. [213] However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated to West Germany through a "loophole" in the system that existed between East Berlin and West Berlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement. [175] Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence. Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit. "[200], In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement, led by young revolutionaries Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, seized power in the Cuban Revolution on 1 January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration. [184], The non-aligned Indonesian government of Sukarno was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956 when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from Jakarta. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. The militia was the ‘People’s Army’, not the army of Cornelius Vanderbilt or Carnegie or political hacks they put in power. However, the Soviets probably had an advantage in terms of HUMINT (espionage) and "sometimes in its reach into high policy circles." Major crises of this phase included the 1948–49 Berlin Blockade, the 1927–1950 Chinese Civil War, the 1950–1953 Korean War, the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. [92], Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman was outraged by the perceived resistance of the Soviet Union to American demands in Iran, Turkey, and Greece, as well as Soviet rejection of the Baruch Plan on nuclear weapons. [220] Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons. [69], In late February 1946, George F. Kennan's "Long Telegram" from Moscow to Washington helped to articulate the US government's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, which would become the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the Helsinki Accords signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975. [223] Accused of rudeness and incompetence, John Lewis Gaddis argues that Khrushchev was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war[224] and that Khrushchev had become an 'international embarrassment' when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the Ahmar Mountains. [269] [316] Issues with command economics,[330] oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation. Hilde Szabo: Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland – German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999. [43] The Soviets pressed their demand made at Yalta, for $20 billion of reparations to be taken from Germany occupation zones. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. However, it no longer included a plan to partition the country into several independent states. [citation needed] In 2013, a KGB-sleeper-agents-living-next-door action drama series, The Americans, set in the early 1980s, was ranked No. With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe, Stalin was at an advantage, and the two western leaders vied for his favors. [266][267][268], On 24 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution succeeded in ousting Marcelo Caetano and Portugal's right-wing Estado Novo government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire. [256] Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt's new leader Anwar Sadat),[257] rumors of imminent Soviet intervention on the Egyptians' behalf during the 1973 Yom Kippur War brought about a massive American mobilization that threatened to wreck détente. It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and ultimately brought about the fall of the Iron Curtain. [245], In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order". [229] Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev responded by reversing Khrushchev's policy of disengagement and increasing aid to the North Vietnamese, hoping to entice the North from its pro-Chinese position. Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018. In June 1950, after years of mutual hostilities,[F][141][142] Kim Il-sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea at the 38th parallel. [372][373], Communist parties outside the Baltic states were not outlawed and their members were not prosecuted. Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. [201], Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Castro during the latter's trip to Washington, DC in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. This directed the US's action to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty while allowing North Korea's survival as a state. [174][citation not found], Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina, were often allied with communist groups or otherwise perceived to be unfriendly to Western interests. In Germany and Austria, France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States established zones of occupation and a loose framework for parceled four-power control. The US government supported right-wing governments and uprisings across the world, while the Soviet government funded communist parties and revolutions around the world. Here's what that means for today", "Report of the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary", "Syria crisis: UN chief says Cold War is back", "Toward the Summit; Previous Reagan-Gorbachev Summits", "What Guilt Does the U.S. Bear in Guatemala? The Asahi Shimbun is widely regarded for its journalism as the most respected daily newspaper in Japan. [222] The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations,[citation needed] although the Cold War's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into force in 1961. [328] At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production,[329] even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production. This led to the Apollo Moon landings by the United States, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War. Under the leadership of Lyuh Woon-Hyung, working secretly during the Japanese occupation, committees throughout Korea formed to coordinate the transition to Korean independence. "[258] In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014. auspices. [298], Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. [2] The doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD) discouraged a pre-emptive attack by either side. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authorization to increase U.S. military presence, deploying ground combat units for the first time and increasing troop levels to 184,000. [301] The Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring Pakistan and China,[302][303] while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government. [25] However, Stalin remained highly suspicious, and he believed that the British and the Americans had conspired to ensure that the Soviets bore the brunt of the fighting against Germany. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism. They realized that Americans were no longer willing to tax themselves for idealistic foreign policy goals, especially for containment policies that never seemed to produce positive results. [26], The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war. "Der 19. [148] The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist Partai Komunis Indonesia party. The urgency of the current economic problems of postcommunism makes the crimes of the communist past "old news" for many citizens. In early 1947, France, Britain and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets. [182] The shah's policies included banning the communist Tudeh Party of Iran, and general suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the shah's domestic security and intelligence agency. The counteroffensive was planned at the command level by Soviet advisers attached to the Ethiopian general staff, and bolstered by the delivery of millions of dollars' of sophisticated Soviet arms. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, the declaration of independence of its constituent republics and the collapse of communist governments across much of Africa and Asia. Both countries were client states of the Soviet Union; Somalia was led by self-proclaimed Marxist military leader Siad Barre, and Ethiopia was controlled by the Derg, a cabal of military generals loyal to the pro-Soviet Mengistu Haile Mariam, who had declared the Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia in 1975. [379] Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories. We need this Account Information to register you. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy. [T], However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not considered to be concluded. In addition to capitalism and communism, Italians and Slovenes, monarchists and republicans as well as war winners and losers often faced each other irreconcilably. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. [311][312], By early 1985, Reagan's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine—which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments. [81] American policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to expand Soviet influence even though Stalin had told the Communist Party to cooperate with the British-backed government. [275], During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam used border areas of Cambodia as military bases, which Cambodian head of state Norodom Sihanouk tolerated in an attempt to preserve Cambodia's neutrality. The Truman Administration was receptive to the telegram due to broken promises by Stalin concerning Europe and Iran. [102] The CIA was also involved in European politics, especially in Italy. [114] The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions. The Truman administration intended to use its ongoing nuclear weapons program to pressure the Soviet Union in international relations. [338] These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. [29] Roosevelt ultimately approved the percentage agreement,[32][33] but there was still apparently no firm consensus on the framework for a post-war settlement in Europe. According to historian Joseph Crespino: The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle's presidency of France. Other critiques of the consensus policy came from anti-Vietnam War activists, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and the anti-nuclear movement.[88]. [21] Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. "[179][180][181] The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch. ... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear. [157], Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "New Look" for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime. Ludwig Greven "Und dann ging das Tor auf", in Die Zeit, 19 August 2014. In Guatemala, a banana republic, the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état ousted the left-wing President Jacobo Árbenz with material CIA support. "[252] These killings served US strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia. [43] In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM),[198] and in October they launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. [353], On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and George H.W. Politics: The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech", "It's Called the Vietnam Syndrome, and It's Back", "Southern Partnership: James F. Byrnes, Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945–1947", "Operation Unthinkable: Britain's Secret Plan to Invade Russia in 1945", "The Soviet-led Intervention in Czechoslovakia", "Address given by Mikhail Gorbachev to the Council of Europe", Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe, "Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian", "Milestones: 1969–1976 – Office of the Historian", "Report by Soviet Deputy Interior Minister M.N.
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